The Syrian Arab Republic has a population of more than 18 million, lies on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean sea and is a country very aware of its Arabic heritage. Since the dawn of time, the area that is Syria has been a crossroads of civilization, the bridge connecting the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and the fertile crescent, and the beginning of the Silk Road joining the West with the East. It was here that the cultures of Mari and Ugarit rose and fell; where the Assyrian, Sumerian, Phoenician, Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman empires and cultures met and influenced each other

Damascus, the capital, is considered the oldest city in the world and was the major eastern political and cultural center of the Roman empire in the times of Jesus--St. Paul underwent his conversion to Christianity "on the road to Damascus". A major Islamic city during the time of the crusades, it became famed for the "Damascened" steel weapons that the local sword smiths created for Saladin and his warriors. In the provinces, there are villages that still speak Aramaic, an oral not written language. The alphabet carved on a clay tablet found in Ugarit, is the first alphabet known in history

There is stunning natural scenery; rugged mountains; green valleys; deserts;beautiful swimming beaches and mountain peaks, perpetually covered with snow. Throughout the country there are magnificent ancient ruins, Medieval castles and fortresses and wonderful Islamic mosques.

History

Ancient Syria was conquered by Egypt about 1500 B.C., and after that by Hebrews, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Persians, and Alexander the Great of Macedonia. From 64 B.C. until the Arab conquest in A.D. 636, it was part of the Roman Empire except during brief periods. The Arabs made it a trade center for their extensive empire, but it suffered severely from the Mongol invasion in 1260 and fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1516. Syria remained a Turkish province until World War I.

A secret Anglo-French pact of 1916 put Syria in the French zone of influence. The League of Nations gave France a mandate over Syria after World War I, but the French were forced to put down several nationalist uprisings. In 1930, France recognized Syria as an independent republic but still subject to the mandate. After nationalist demonstrations in 1939, the French high commissioner suspended the Syrian constitution. In 1941, British and Free French forces invaded Syria to eliminate Vichy control. During the rest of World War II, Syria was an Allied base. Again in 1945, nationalist demonstrations broke into actual fighting, and British troops had to restore order. Syrian forces met a series of reverses while participating in the Arab invasion of Palestine in 1948. In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic, with Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt as president. However, Syria became independent again on Sept. 29, 1961, following a revolution.

TIn the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, Israel quickly vanquished the Syrian army. Before acceding to the UN cease-fire, the Israeli forces took control of the fortified Golan Heights. Syria joined Egypt in attacking Israel in Oct. 1973 in the fourth Arab-Israeli War, but was pushed back from initial successes on the Golan Heights and ended up losing more land. However, in the settlement worked out by U.S. secretary of state Henry A. Kissinger in 1974, the Syrians recovered all the territory lost in 1973.

In the mid-1970s Syria sent some 20,000 troops to support Muslim Lebanese in their armed conflict with Christian militants supported by Israel during the civil war in Lebanon. Syrian troops frequently clashed with Israeli troops during Israel's 1982 invasion of Lebanon and remained thereafter as occupiers of large portions of Lebanon.

In 1990, President Assad ruled out any possibility of legalizing opposition political parties. In Dec. 1991 voters approved a fourth term for Assad, giving him 99.98% of the vote.In the 1990s, the slowdown in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process was echoed in the lack of progress in Israeli-Syrian relations. Confronted with a steadily strengthening strategic partnership between Israel and Turkey, Syria took steps to construct a countervailing alliance by improving relations with Iraq, strengthening ties with Iran, and collaborating more closely with Saudi Arabia. In Dec. 1999, Israeli-Syrian talks resumed after a nearly four-year hiatus, but they soon broke down over discussions about the Golan Heights.

On June 10, 2000, President Hafez al-Assad died. He had ruled with an iron fist since taking power in a military coup in 1970. His son, Bashar al-Assad, an ophthalmologist by training, succeeded him. He has emulated his father's autocratic rule.In the summer of 2001, Syria withdrew nearly all of its 25,000 troops from Beirut. Syrian soldiers, however, remained in the Lebanese countryside.The U.S. imposed economic sanctions on the country in May, accusing it of continuing to support terrorism.In Sept. 2004, a UN Security Council resolution asked Syria to withdraw its 15,000 remaining troops from Lebanon. Syria responded by moving about 3,000 troops from the vicinity of Beirut to eastern Lebanon, a gesture viewed by many as merely cosmetic.

On Feb. 14, 2004, Lebanon's former prime minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated. Many implicated Syria in the death of the popular and independent leader, who staunchly opposed Syrian involvement in Lebanon. Huge Lebanese protests called for Syria's withdrawal from the country, a demand backed by the U.S., EU, and UN. In addition to the anti-Syrian demonstrations, however, there were a number of massive pro-Syrian rallies in Lebanon sponsored by the Shiite militant group Hezbollah. By the end of April, Syria had withdrawn all its troops, ending a 29-year occupation. In October, the UN released a damning report on Hariri's slaying, concluding that the assassination was carefully organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence officials, including Syria's military intelligence chief, Asef Shawkat, who is the brother-in-law of President Assad. Syria vehemently denied the charges.

In July 2006, during the Hezbollah-Israeli conflict in Lebanon, Syria was strongly suspected of aiding Hezbollah.Israeli jets fired on targets deep inside Syria in September 2007. American and Israeli intelligence analysts later said that Israel had attacked a partially built nuclear reactor. Several officials wondered aloud if North Korea had played a role in the development of the nuclear plant. Syria denied that any such facilities exist and protested to the United Nations, calling the attack a "violation of sovereignty." After the attack, Syria destroyed the building that had been targeted. In January 2008, satellite photographs revealed that another, similar building was under construction on the same site.

The main components of the Syrian economy are agriculture and oil. In the agricultural sector, cotton is the principal commodity and a key export. Wheat, barley, fruit and vegetables are the other main products, the bulk of which are grown for domestic consumption.Oil is the main industry and provides two-thirds of Syrian export earnings, although the future of the sector is limited by the relatively small size of the Syrian Arab Republic’s reserves (which are already over half-exhausted). There are also reserves of phosphates (another export earner), iron ore and natural gas.

The rest of the industrial economy is divided roughly between three areas: chemicals, rubber and plastics; textiles and leather goods; and food and drink. The service economy is relatively under-developed but expanding rapidly: tourism especially has seen exceptional growth to the extent that the Syrian Arab Republic now receives over 1 million visitors annually.A particular problem for the Syrian economy in a very arid region is the availability of water. The Syrians have concluded a long-term agreement with Turkey over use of the northern part of Tigris/Euphrates river system (which also serves Iraq), but this is still a highly sensitive issue.

The government has set a high priority on economic reform. Much of the economy is still state-owned and highly regulated. Some measures have been introduced to promote private enterprise and attract foreign investment; fiscal policy has focused on an overhaul and simplification of the convoluted tax system. The cabinet has been tasked to accelerate the economic reform process, although it is likely to encounter many of the same obstacles as its predecessors in the form of well-entrenched vested interests and monopolies.

The Syrian Arab Republic’s trade patterns have shifted since the demise of the Soviet bloc, with which it traded extensively. It is now more vulnerable to attitudes in Washington: under the Bush administration, the Syrian Arab Republic is classed as a ‘rogue state’ and since November 2003 has been subject to partial economic sanctions. This has a knock-on effect on trade with other countries.

Arabic (Al Arabiya), a Semitic idiom, is the main language spoken in Syria. The Arabic language was adopted and spread over a large area of land in the Seventh Century. This language has very old roots going back to the Assyrians in the Ninth Century BC. Other languages related to Arabic are Babylonian, Hittite (or Hourrite), Hebrew and Aramean.

Arabic was probably first written in the Second and Third Centuries, the Lakhmides tribe in Southern Mesopotamia. The Arabic alphabet has a few extra letters that do not exist in the normal Latin and Germanic languages. Arabic is also written from Right to Left.

Religion is an important part of any Syrian, whether Muslim or Christian. Muslims in Syria are over 80%, and most Syrian Muslims follow the teachings of their religion quite whole heartedly.

The Muezzin's 'call to prayer' from Syria's many mosques will be heard five times a day. At dawn, noon, early afternoon, dusk, and at night (which is accomplished between dusk and the dawn of the new day). Many Muslim's leave in the middle of their work to go and pray in the mosque with fellow Muslims. While others tend to pray at home or at work, on a prayer mat (carpet).

There are several Christian communities, who on a whole constitute approx. 8% of the Syrian population. Christianity in Syria is divided into three parts. Catholic Churches, Orthodox Churches, and the Protestants. The Catholic Churches are divided into the following: Greek Catholics, Syrian Catholics, Armenian Catholics, Chaldean Catholics, Maronite Catholics, and Latin Catholics. All have their own Patriarch, although the highest position is the Pope in the Vatican. The Orthodox Churches are divided into Greek Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, and Armenian Orthodox. These Churches also have their own patriarchs although the Armenians are under the guidance of a Patriarch in Armenia. Protestants are few and are under the guidance of a Thinodus.

Christianity in Syria is strongly recognized and National holidays include Christmas, New Years day, and Easter. The Armenian Orthodox Church celebrates Christmas on the 6th of January. As for Easter it is celebrated on two different dates, the customary Western date (celebrated by the Catholic Churches, Protestants and Armenian Orthodox), the other date is celebrated by the Syrian and Greek Orthodox.

The Syrian Arab Republic’s climate is characterised by hot, dry summers and fairly cold winters. Nights are often cool.The most hospitable and pleasant climate in Syria is to be found near the coast. Here, Mediterranean conditions give hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, with average daily temperatures of 29°C in summer and 10°C in winter. Annual rainfall along the coast ranges from 750 to 1,000mm (30 to 40 inches). Moving inland from the coast, Syria's climate becomes increasingly drier and less welcoming. Temperatures in the plateau region average around 35°C in summer and 12°C in winter and annual rainfall varies from 250mm to 500mm (10 to 20 inches). Winters in the northern interior can be cold, with temperatures often falling to below freezing. In the desert area, summer temperatures average 40°C, with frequent highs of around 46 °C. Rainfall is extremely low.

Required Clothing: Lightweights are essential in summer with protective headwear. Heavy winter clothing is advisable from November to March.

Currency
Syrian Pound (SYP; symbol S£) = 100 piastres. Notes are in denominations of S£1,000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5 and 1. Coins are in denominations of S£25, 10, 5, 2 and 1. Syrian currency cannot generally be reconverted to hard currency. The country’s banking system is state-owned, and there is at least one branch of the Commercial Bank of Syria in every main town. Hard currency can be exchanged for local currency in these branches.

Credit/Debit Cards and ATMs
American Express and Diners Club are most readily accepted; some hotels will accept MasterCard. Tickets may be bought with credit cards.

Banking Hours
Normally Sat-Thurs 08:00-14:00 (banks tend to close early on Thursdays).

• Time: GMT + 2 (GMT + 3 from 1 April to 1 October).
• Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50Hz. European-style two-pin plugs.
• Country code: 963

The following items may be imported into the Syrian Arab Republic without incurring customs duty (irrespective of passenger’s age):

• 200 cigarettes or 50 cigarillos or 25 cigars or 250g of tobacco.
• 30g perfume for personal use.
• 570ml of spirits.
• 500ml of lotion and 500ml of eau de cologne.
• Gifts worth up to S£250.

Prohibited Imports : Firearms and ammunition; live, frozen or stuffed birds, or any bird-derived products.

Getting Around Syria

Getting There by Air: The Syrian Arab Republic’s national airline is Syrian Arab Airlines (RB)

Getting There by Rail: Trips go via Ankara (Turkey) and Istanbul. Change at Ankara for the Taurus Express to Aleppo.

Getting There by Water: Main ports: Latakia and Tartus.The nearest car ferry sails to Bodrum in western Turkey. Beirut (Lebanon), however, is served (from Egypt, Cyprus and Greece) and Damascus can then be reached in a couple of hours by road. An attractive alternative is to take a ferry either from Italy (Ancona, Brindisi or Venice) or from Greece (Piraeus) and go as far as Turkey (Bodrum, Izmir or Kusadasi). From any of these ports it is easy to join the main road south via Aydin, Dinar, Antalya, and the steep rugged coast through Alanya, Anamur, Mersin, Tarsus, Iskenderun, Antakya, to Aleppo or Latakia. Three days should be allowed for the sea crossing and another three for the drive.

Certain lines offer a mixture of cruise and car ferry; the return journey could be made via Bodrum, Heraklion, Rhodes, Santorini and Piraeus. Cruise ferries are organised by Cypriot, Greek, Italian and Turkish companies and their programmes vary year by year.

Getting There by Road:The principal international routes are from Istanbul, via the E5 road to Adana, Ankara and Iskenderun in Turkey. Enter at Bab-al-Hawa for Aleppo, or at Kassab for Latakia. From the east, the best routes are from Aqaba on the Red Sea in Jordan. Services are available across the desert, with routes from Aleppo and Damascus to Istanbul; Damascus to Amman; Damascus to Beirut and Tripoli; and Damascus to Riyadh.

To enter the Syrian Arab Republic with a car, a customs certificate must be produced; it is obtainable from Automobile Clubs and Touring Clubs against a deposit. An International Driving Permit can also be obtained from these organisations, which is obligatory for holders of licences which do not use the Latin alphabet.

Important Information on Entry and Exit Requirements:

• A valid entry visa granted by the Syria Embassy or Consulate in the visitor's country of origin or residence.
• Where there is no Syrian mission in the passport holder's country, an entry visa may be issued by any other Syrian mission abroad, or at the point of entry to Syria.
• Groups of tourists of ten or more are granted a group visa gratis (free of charge) provided each member of the group be in possession of a valid passport.
• Visitors planning to spend more than 15 days in the country are required to apply to the security authorities for an extension of stay.
• Every visitor must exchange $100 at the border.
• Tourist group more than ten persons are exempted from this exchange.
• Tourists who visit Syria more than once, within a period of two months are exempted from re-exchanging $100 for second time.
• Every tourist must pay 100 SP as a departure airport tax.
• Bills at all hotels are paid in hard Currency.
• Passports of visitors to Syria must not carry an Israel Visa.
• Fees Charged for entry visas are subject to the principle of reciprocity with the country concerned.
• Visitors are not required to obtain an exit visa if their stay does not exceed a period of 15 days.
  

The Amphitheatre at Palmyra, Syria is a place where the cross-cultural and cross-religious influences can be felt until today. In the middle of a deeply Islamic country there are several flourishing Christian Churches as well as an ancient Jewish community.Thus the amphitheatre of Palmyra is the choice of the location for Voices From The Stars Above The Desert. A tour among the ruins, which cover an area of 6 square kilometres, requires a full day in order to form an adequate idea of the beauty of the architecture, which has remained.

Colonnades at Apamea are a feature of many of the cities of Roman Syria. Perhaps the most famous one visible in Syria today is that of Palmyra, a city in the desert of eastern Syria. Palmyra was noted in ancient times for its role in bringing the spices, silks and other luxury goods into the Roman Empire from Persia, India and even China. The colonnades at Palmyra are decorated with numerous statue brackets, which once held statues of the prominent citizens of Palmyra. Some of these were Senators, governors and city officials, while others commemorate the activities of merchants who were involved in bringing the camel caravans through the city and to the rest of the Roman Empire. The inscriptions on these brackets show us that the trade began in the first century AD and peaked in the second and third centuries, before finally coming to an end when Palmyra revolted from the Romans and was destroyed in AD 272. The wealth from these trading activities, which was also prominent throughout the whole region of Roman Syria, shows us the importance and significance of merchants and trading in those times.

The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus site has housed sacred buildings for thousands of years, in each incarnation transformed to accommodate the faith of the time. An ancient Aramaic temple dedicated to the god Hadad is the oldest layer of architectural use to be uncovered on archeological expeditions. During the Roman period, the Temple of Jupiter occupied the space. This edifice was transformed to a church in the fourth century. This church was expanded to form the Cathedral of St. John, situated on the western side of the older temple. After the Islamic conquest of Damascus in 661, during the reign of the first Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan, the Muslims shared the church with the Christians. The Muslims prayed in the eastern section of the ancient temple structure and the Christians in the western side. This collective use continued until Walid bin Abdul Malek's reign, when the prayer space became inadequate both in terms of capacity and the need for an architectural monument to represent the new religion. The caliph negotiated with Christian leaders to take over the space, and in return al-Walid promised that all the other churches around the city would be safe, with the addition of a new church dedicated to the Virgin granted to the Christians as compensation.

The Amphitheatre at Bosra is the largest amphitheatre built by the Romans their Eastern provinces. It was constructed in the second Century A.D. and can seat, until now, more than 15000 spectators. The stage is 45m wide and 8m deep.

The gradins are seprated by alleys into three sections, according to social status.A great many columns. Of the Corinthian style, with beautifully engraved friezes be seen in the Amphitheatre which is still used to give performance.

The Crac des Chevaliers at Homs was built by the Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem from 1142 to 1271. With further construction by the Mamluks in the late 13th century, it ranks among the best-preserved examples of the Crusader castles. The Qal’at Salah El-Din (Fortress of Saladin), even though partly in ruins, represents an outstanding example of this type of fortification, both in terms of the quality of construction and the survival of historical stratigraphy. It retains features from its Byzantine beginnings in the 10th century, the Frankish transformations in the late 12th century and fortifications added by the Ayyubid dynasty.